Vitamin A (retinol) is essential for fetal organ development, with preclinical studies associating maternal vitamin A deficiency (VAD) with reduced nephron numbers, smaller kidneys, and higher chronic kidney disease (CKD) risk later in life. However, similar findings in humans are limited, and no studies in Nebraska have examined maternal VAD's effect on fetal and infant kidney development, despite 10% of mothers being deficient at delivery. Additionally, the impact of provitamin A compounds (α-carotene, β-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin) on kidney size remains unexplored.